What is a forex dealer?
A forex dealer provides online trading services to allow individuals to speculate on rapidly changing foreign exchange rates. Forex Dealer Members (FDMs) are regulated by the CFTC and National Futures Association in the United States, as well as by national and local regulatory bodies where they conduct business, and are held to stringent business and ethical standards
How does forex trading work?
Many U.S. and international companies provide online trading software and services for individuals (traders) who want to speculate on the exchange rate differences between two currencies. In doing so, these speculators buy or sell currencies with the objective of making a profit when the value of the currencies changes in their favor, whether those fluctuations derive from market news, supply and demand principles, or geo-political events taking place throughout the world. In addition, the forex market is available to trade 24 hours a day, 5.5 days a week, allowing traders more freedom to trade when they want to, not just when an exchange is open.
Popularity of forex trading
The growth of trading OTC foreign exchange (known as retail FX or retail forex trading) has more than doubled from 2004 to 2007. Many financial experts suggest this growth curve is projected to continue well beyond 2010. What has led to this phenomenal growth? Innovation, competition and consumer demand.
The public has recognized U.S. forex companies as leaders in technology, with three of the leading forex firms named to the Deloitte Technology Fast 500[1], a highly regarded ranking of the top North American technology companies, for three consecutive years. The leading U.S. forex companies have also been named to the Inc. 500 list of the country’s fastest growing companies. In 2006, the top FX companies made up nearly 20 percent of the total number of financial services industry firms on the Inc. 500 list[2]. It is apparent that Americans have embraced this growing market, making foreign exchange one of the fastest growing industries in the United States.
Forex Scalping
Forex scalping is a trading strategy in which the trader makes dozens or even hundreds of trades daily, looking to capture a few pips per trade. Generally, scalpers stay in trades for less than a minute, bolting as soon as their position captures a few pips.
Brokers do not look kindly upon scalpers, as many times scalpers will exit a position before the dealing desk has time to deal your order. This means that the brokerage has to eat the position—a successful scalper will consistently earn money—money that comes directly from the brokerage’s pocket.
To avoid this conflict of interest between scalpers and the brokerages, scalpers often trade with electronic communication network (ECN) brokerages, which circumvent the dealing desk allowing online traders to trade directly with one another. ECN brokerages usually have less liquidity than traditional dealing desk brokerages and charge a per trade commission, but their pip spreads are narrower.
To be a successful online Forex scalper, traders must follow strict risk management rules. Because the scalper grabs only a couple of pips at a time, one big loss can wipe out dozens and dozens of careful, meticulous trading. Traders should be sure to use stop loss orders, ensuring that the profit/loss margin on each trade is very small.
History of the Foreign Exchange
Until the mid-seventies, major industrial economies were governed by the Bretton Woods agreement of 1944. The Bretton Woods agreement—which was named after the location of the international conference establishing this new monetary order—obliged participating international economies to peg their currencies to the dollar, which itself remained within a 1% standard deviation from the prevailing gold rate.
The architects of the Bretton Woods agreement hoped to prevent countries from artificially devaluating currencies, in order to make goods more attractive in the international marketplace, which led, in part, to a disastrous shrinking of the world economy in the 30s.
The system they established lasted for the next three decades. Shrinking confidence in the dollar, however, lead to a new international monetary system of floating rates, meaning that regular market forces, rather than governmental intervention, would determine the value of currencies. It was from this new system that the modern Forex market arose.
In a floating exchange rate system, market demand determines the relative value of currencies. Such a system is thought of as self-correcting, as any inefficiency is hammered out in the market. If, for instance, global demand for a particular currency falls, goods will become cheaper, and thus the value will begin to rise with the newly created demand.
In a floating exchange system, traders can exploit inefficiencies before the market corrects itself. These traders are called arbitrageurs, and they are able to utilize online brokers to execute their trades. If you are interested in beginning to trade in the Foreign Exchange, please visit our broker’s page to find a broker suitable for you.
How do I get started in Forex?
Do you see the profit potential in trading currencies, but learning to trade just seems too daunting? Have you watched with excitement the recent crashing of the value of the USD, but simply don’t know how to get started trading?
While it is simple to begin trading Forex online, maintaining profitability in the long term is no easy task. You have probably heard that 90% of Forex traders lose their money in the long term. If indeed this is true, it is the result of a couple of different factors.
Overtrading: Each trade costs you a couple of pips—Consider your trades well before you make them. Each faulty trade, even if exited quickly, drains equity.
Bad money management: One bad trade can wipe out a year of patient, smart trading. Manage your risk using stop loss orders, so that you never risk too high a percentage of your equity on any one single trade.
Lack of knowledge: If you have never traded Forex before, educate yourself! Successful traders are not born that way. The difference between success and failure in the Forex market depends in no small part on the knowledge and education of a trader. For the beginning trader, a proper education is essential before investing in the Foreign Exchange. Find a program you are comfortable with, and begin practicing on a demo account.
Trading on the foreign exchange offers unparalleled opportunities for profit, but it is also extremely risky. Make sure you know what you are getting into before you start trading, and start trading only when you are comfortable in your knowledge and ability.
Search Here
Saturday, December 8, 2007
Online Forex Trading
If you’ve invested in the stock market you know what a rush it can be when you come out with profits. The currency markets are much different than the stock market but the rush is even bigger. You’ll want to understand the Forex trading market to help you ensure success.
Forex is short for the Foreign Currency Exchange Market which is also referred to as FX. It is by far the largest market on the planet turning over more than a trillion US dollars a day. That’s thirty times more than the entire volume of all the equity markets in the United States.
What makes the Forex trading market so unique is that it does not have an actual physical location, nor does it have a central exchange. An over the counter market services banks, investors, corporations, and individuals whether they are buying or selling. This is a great example of a true 24 hour market.
Each morning in Sydney the Forex trading market begins, moving around the planet as the business day opens in each of the financial centers – First it goes to Tokyo, then on to London, and then New York.
When dealing on the Forex trading market you can analyze the currency market using either the technical analysis approach or the fundamental analysis.
The technical analysis is used when one wishes to attempt to predict what the future movement is going to be on a specific currency based on past performance. It entails studying specific factors that can influence a currency. These factors cold be changes in a Government, a war, a crisis, or several specifics that influence supply and demand which is reflected in the market price.
Fundamental analysis is also referred to as current accounts. They measure the net of imports and exports in any one country and the records the subsequent impact on the currency flows.
When it comes to currency trading there is no doubt that Forex or FX is the largest market in the world. Just about every industry is somehow involved in currency trading – banks, multinational corporations, central banks, governments, financial institutes, retail traders, and a variety of institutions all in one way or another directly or indirectly play in the currency market.
Thanks to technology an individual can now set up a Forex trading account and begin to trade without any involvement with a bank or trading institute. There are several excellent online forex trading sites where you can get involved with the Forex trading market and begin trading on your own. The big question is are you ready for the rush when you sell high?
Forex Currency Trading – What’s It All About?
These days we hear all kinds of buzz words when it comes to working at home opportunities. But Forex currency trading is definitely a buzz you need to pay attention to. So what’s it all about?
There are many reasons that Forex currency trading an excellent way to enter the capital markets. Thanks to the internet Forex has become very accessible, and because the cost of transactions is low and there are no commissions anyone can get involved in this great opportunity to make money.
As with anything there are good and bad so you need to look for a good Forex broker because they will provide you with a trading account that offers what we just talked about. Some even offer what’s called Mini Forex Traders in which you can begin trading with only $250 capital. Now you have no excuse why not to give it a try?
When you are trading in the Forex markets online there’s no need to concern yourself with any of the usual broker fees and there’s no NFA or SEC fees.
Wondering how the Forex brokers can make money when they are not charging any fees when you trade? They make their money on the bid/ask spread. Good for them and good for you.
Once you decide to learn how to trade on the Forex currency trading market. Like with anything the more practice the better you will become and before long you will be a real Forex trading pro enjoying those profits.
But no one wants to practice and learn by playing with their own money which is why there are many several creative Forex trading simulations online. Just like the real thing with one thing missing – your real money.
When you’re confident in your skill level flip to the real Forex currency trading and enjoy that adrenaline rush when you reap those big profits
Forex is short for the Foreign Currency Exchange Market which is also referred to as FX. It is by far the largest market on the planet turning over more than a trillion US dollars a day. That’s thirty times more than the entire volume of all the equity markets in the United States.
What makes the Forex trading market so unique is that it does not have an actual physical location, nor does it have a central exchange. An over the counter market services banks, investors, corporations, and individuals whether they are buying or selling. This is a great example of a true 24 hour market.
Each morning in Sydney the Forex trading market begins, moving around the planet as the business day opens in each of the financial centers – First it goes to Tokyo, then on to London, and then New York.
When dealing on the Forex trading market you can analyze the currency market using either the technical analysis approach or the fundamental analysis.
The technical analysis is used when one wishes to attempt to predict what the future movement is going to be on a specific currency based on past performance. It entails studying specific factors that can influence a currency. These factors cold be changes in a Government, a war, a crisis, or several specifics that influence supply and demand which is reflected in the market price.
Fundamental analysis is also referred to as current accounts. They measure the net of imports and exports in any one country and the records the subsequent impact on the currency flows.
When it comes to currency trading there is no doubt that Forex or FX is the largest market in the world. Just about every industry is somehow involved in currency trading – banks, multinational corporations, central banks, governments, financial institutes, retail traders, and a variety of institutions all in one way or another directly or indirectly play in the currency market.
Thanks to technology an individual can now set up a Forex trading account and begin to trade without any involvement with a bank or trading institute. There are several excellent online forex trading sites where you can get involved with the Forex trading market and begin trading on your own. The big question is are you ready for the rush when you sell high?
Forex Currency Trading – What’s It All About?
These days we hear all kinds of buzz words when it comes to working at home opportunities. But Forex currency trading is definitely a buzz you need to pay attention to. So what’s it all about?
There are many reasons that Forex currency trading an excellent way to enter the capital markets. Thanks to the internet Forex has become very accessible, and because the cost of transactions is low and there are no commissions anyone can get involved in this great opportunity to make money.
As with anything there are good and bad so you need to look for a good Forex broker because they will provide you with a trading account that offers what we just talked about. Some even offer what’s called Mini Forex Traders in which you can begin trading with only $250 capital. Now you have no excuse why not to give it a try?
When you are trading in the Forex markets online there’s no need to concern yourself with any of the usual broker fees and there’s no NFA or SEC fees.
Wondering how the Forex brokers can make money when they are not charging any fees when you trade? They make their money on the bid/ask spread. Good for them and good for you.
Once you decide to learn how to trade on the Forex currency trading market. Like with anything the more practice the better you will become and before long you will be a real Forex trading pro enjoying those profits.
But no one wants to practice and learn by playing with their own money which is why there are many several creative Forex trading simulations online. Just like the real thing with one thing missing – your real money.
When you’re confident in your skill level flip to the real Forex currency trading and enjoy that adrenaline rush when you reap those big profits
For Global Forex Trading
For Global Forex Trading
You’ve decided to become a trader on the Forex market but since you’ve never played on the currency market you aren’t sure where to start. Not to worry – we’ve got some great tips for global Forex trading,
Forex is the foreign exchange market where currencies are bought and sold. It began back in the 1970’s with the introduction of free exchange rates and floating currencies. Thanks to the internet more and more people are able to reap the profits of the currency market with global Forex trading.
This is a market that trades as over US$1 trillion a day. It trades more than any other market. There are some distinct differences in the currency market compared to the stock market. Money moves much faster so no single investor has the ability to actually affect market price and trades are able to open and close within seconds which is not possible on the stock market.
To start your global Forex trading you need to open a Forex account. Just fill in the application and the sign the margin agreement which let’s the broker intervene at any time. That makes sense since it’s the broker’s money that just makes sense.
You need to choose a trading strategy that works for you. Different strategies work for different traders to don’t try to makes something work, instead find the right trading strategy for you.
It’s important to understand that trends move prices so a smart investor will make trends their friend and even go so far as to examine historical trends.
The top five currency pairs are USD/Yen, Euro/Yen, Swiss franc/USD, Pound USD/ and the Euro/USD. Make sure you know and understand them.
Examine the charts at 1 hour, 4 hour, and daily. This will give you the daily trends and plenty of opportunity to trade. Sure you can trade every 15 minutes if you like but that’s not really practical.
Now that you’ve got all your global Forex trading tips you’re ready to see some profits.
You’ve decided to become a trader on the Forex market but since you’ve never played on the currency market you aren’t sure where to start. Not to worry – we’ve got some great tips for global Forex trading,
Forex is the foreign exchange market where currencies are bought and sold. It began back in the 1970’s with the introduction of free exchange rates and floating currencies. Thanks to the internet more and more people are able to reap the profits of the currency market with global Forex trading.
This is a market that trades as over US$1 trillion a day. It trades more than any other market. There are some distinct differences in the currency market compared to the stock market. Money moves much faster so no single investor has the ability to actually affect market price and trades are able to open and close within seconds which is not possible on the stock market.
To start your global Forex trading you need to open a Forex account. Just fill in the application and the sign the margin agreement which let’s the broker intervene at any time. That makes sense since it’s the broker’s money that just makes sense.
You need to choose a trading strategy that works for you. Different strategies work for different traders to don’t try to makes something work, instead find the right trading strategy for you.
It’s important to understand that trends move prices so a smart investor will make trends their friend and even go so far as to examine historical trends.
The top five currency pairs are USD/Yen, Euro/Yen, Swiss franc/USD, Pound USD/ and the Euro/USD. Make sure you know and understand them.
Examine the charts at 1 hour, 4 hour, and daily. This will give you the daily trends and plenty of opportunity to trade. Sure you can trade every 15 minutes if you like but that’s not really practical.
Now that you’ve got all your global Forex trading tips you’re ready to see some profits.
Forex Trader's Bill of Rights
Forex Trader's Bill of Rights
The Forex Trader’s Bill of Rights (2005) is a non-fiction book about the foreign currency trading market, published by OANDA_Corporation. It is primarily a call to arms for currency traders to call for greater transparency and accountability within the market. The overleaf provided with the printed version of the book states: “Big banks and confederated brokerages have overcomplicated forex: trading costs are inflated, unnecessary risk abounds, and the system is grossly unfair.” Essentially, the book elaborates on this premise, detailing ways in which traders are being unfairly treated and encouraging them to take action.
OANDA is a company that provides currency trading tools for investors, travelers, and businesses. As such, there is an unavoidable marketing aspect to this publication. However, OANDA is not mentioned throughout the book. There has been a clear effort to maintain a relatively neutral point of view. The back cover does state “OANDA is a leading provider of online currency trading…FXTrade…enables all currency investors to change the way forex trading is done”.
The authors believe currency investors have 10 basic rights which are being violated: each short chapter deals with one of these rights. They are:
1. The right to immediate, uncensored access to the marketplace
2. The right to trade real spot
3. The right to know
4. The right to trade whenever you want
5. The right to equal treatment
6. The right to choose and manage risk
7. The right to understand cost
8. The right to learn – on your own, or through free exchange with other traders
9. The right to full disclosure
10. The right to pay and receive interest
1) The right to immediate, uncensored access to the marketplace Chapter one argues that when trading traditionally (with banks etc.,) execution and price are affected by who you are (size of your order/ relationship with your market maker etc.), the amount of greed on the part of the market maker, and manual intervention which can delay the trade. The chapter calls for transparency, fairness, and efficiency for traders from market makers.
2) The right to trade real spot
Chapter two addresses unnecessary delays in settlement of trades, which according to the authors increase risk for investors.
3) The right to know
The third chapter states that market makers share information based on who you are: in some cases they share information that should not be shared; in other cases they do not share information that should be publicly available. This leads to an unfair advantage.
4) The right to trade whenever you want
The chapter asserts that market makers may advertise 24 hour trading but they close the books on Friday. However, world events which affect currency price occur on weekends. The argument continues that since the technology for 24/7 trading is available, it should be offered by all market makers.
5) The right to equal treatment
Chapter five argues that every trader should be given the same price and spread, and that market makers should not discriminate between traders.
6) The right to choose and manage risk
Traders are encouraged to use a market maker who does not require high minimums, lets them trade any amount, and provides immediate settlement as a way of minimizing risk.
7) The right to understand cost
It is reasoned that traders have the right to understand spreads, as well as who gets a “cut” and why. This chapter also includes a profitability calculator.
8) The right to learn – on your own, or through free exchange with other traders
This chapter covers multiple ways to learn about trading, and test new strategies, including trading games offered by online market makers and other sources of Internet information.
9) The right to full disclosure
The book claims that a lack of transparency in pricing, execution, and after the trade needs to addressed. Market makers should publish statistics regarding real spreads and prices and traders should demand that they do this.
10) The right to pay and receive interest
It is argued that continuous interest should be introduced, which would make for price flows that are less volatile.
The Forex Trader’s Bill of Rights (2005) is a non-fiction book about the foreign currency trading market, published by OANDA_Corporation. It is primarily a call to arms for currency traders to call for greater transparency and accountability within the market. The overleaf provided with the printed version of the book states: “Big banks and confederated brokerages have overcomplicated forex: trading costs are inflated, unnecessary risk abounds, and the system is grossly unfair.” Essentially, the book elaborates on this premise, detailing ways in which traders are being unfairly treated and encouraging them to take action.
OANDA is a company that provides currency trading tools for investors, travelers, and businesses. As such, there is an unavoidable marketing aspect to this publication. However, OANDA is not mentioned throughout the book. There has been a clear effort to maintain a relatively neutral point of view. The back cover does state “OANDA is a leading provider of online currency trading…FXTrade…enables all currency investors to change the way forex trading is done”.
The authors believe currency investors have 10 basic rights which are being violated: each short chapter deals with one of these rights. They are:
1. The right to immediate, uncensored access to the marketplace
2. The right to trade real spot
3. The right to know
4. The right to trade whenever you want
5. The right to equal treatment
6. The right to choose and manage risk
7. The right to understand cost
8. The right to learn – on your own, or through free exchange with other traders
9. The right to full disclosure
10. The right to pay and receive interest
1) The right to immediate, uncensored access to the marketplace Chapter one argues that when trading traditionally (with banks etc.,) execution and price are affected by who you are (size of your order/ relationship with your market maker etc.), the amount of greed on the part of the market maker, and manual intervention which can delay the trade. The chapter calls for transparency, fairness, and efficiency for traders from market makers.
2) The right to trade real spot
Chapter two addresses unnecessary delays in settlement of trades, which according to the authors increase risk for investors.
3) The right to know
The third chapter states that market makers share information based on who you are: in some cases they share information that should not be shared; in other cases they do not share information that should be publicly available. This leads to an unfair advantage.
4) The right to trade whenever you want
The chapter asserts that market makers may advertise 24 hour trading but they close the books on Friday. However, world events which affect currency price occur on weekends. The argument continues that since the technology for 24/7 trading is available, it should be offered by all market makers.
5) The right to equal treatment
Chapter five argues that every trader should be given the same price and spread, and that market makers should not discriminate between traders.
6) The right to choose and manage risk
Traders are encouraged to use a market maker who does not require high minimums, lets them trade any amount, and provides immediate settlement as a way of minimizing risk.
7) The right to understand cost
It is reasoned that traders have the right to understand spreads, as well as who gets a “cut” and why. This chapter also includes a profitability calculator.
8) The right to learn – on your own, or through free exchange with other traders
This chapter covers multiple ways to learn about trading, and test new strategies, including trading games offered by online market makers and other sources of Internet information.
9) The right to full disclosure
The book claims that a lack of transparency in pricing, execution, and after the trade needs to addressed. Market makers should publish statistics regarding real spreads and prices and traders should demand that they do this.
10) The right to pay and receive interest
It is argued that continuous interest should be introduced, which would make for price flows that are less volatile.
Foreign exchange market
Foreign exchange market
Exchange Rates
Currency band
Exchange rate
Exchange rate regime
Fixed exchange rate
Floating exchange rate
Linked exchange rate
Markets
Foreign exchange market
Futures exchange
Products
Currency
Currency future
Non-deliverable forward
Forex swap
Currency swap
Foreign exchange option
The foreign exchange (currency or forex or FX) market exists wherever one currency is traded for another. It is by far the largest financial market in the world, and includes trading between large banks, central banks, currency speculators, multinational corporations, governments, and other financial markets and institutions. The average daily trade in the global forex and related markets currently is over US$ 3 trillion.[1] Retail traders (individuals) are a small fraction of this market and may only participate indirectly through brokers or banks, and are subject to forex scams[2] [3].
Market size and liquidity
The foreign exchange market is unique because of
its trading volumes,
the extreme liquidity of the market,
the large number of, and variety of, traders in the market,
its geographical dispersion,
its long trading hours: 24 hours a day (except on weekends),
the variety of factors that affect exchange rates.
the low margins of profit compared with other markets of fixed income (but profits can be high due to very large trading volumes)
According to the BIS,[1] average daily turnover in traditional foreign exchange markets is estimated at $3,210 billion. Daily averages in April for different years, in billions of US dollars, are presented on the chart below:
This $3.21 trillion in global foreign exchange market "traditional" turnover was broken down as follows:
$1,005 billion in spot transactions
$362 billion in outright forwards
$1,714 billion in forex swaps
$129 billion estimated gaps in reporting
In addition to "traditional" turnover, $2.1 trillion was traded in derivatives.
Exchange-traded forex futures contracts were introduced in 1972 at the Chicago Mercantile Exchange and are actively traded relative to most other futures contracts. Forex futures volume has grown rapidly in recent years, and accounts for about 7% of the total foreign exchange market volume, according to The Wall Street Journal Europe (5/5/06, p. 20).
Average daily global turnover in traditional foreign exchange market transactions totaled $2.7 trillion in April 2006 according to IFSL estimates based on semi-annual London, New York, Tokyo and Singapore Foreign Exchange Committee data. Overall turnover, including non-traditional foreign exchange derivatives and products traded on exchanges, averaged around $2.9 trillion a day. This was more than ten times the size of the combined daily turnover on all the world’s equity markets. Foreign exchange trading increased by 38% between April 2005 and April 2006 and has more than doubled since 2001. This is largely due to the growing importance of foreign exchange as an asset class and an increase in fund management assets, particularly of hedge funds and pension funds. The diverse selection of execution venues such as internet trading platforms has also made it easier for retail traders to trade in the foreign exchange market. [4]
Because foreign exchange is an OTC market where brokers/dealers negotiate directly with one another, there is no central exchange or clearing house. The biggest geographic trading centre is the UK, primarily London, which according to IFSL estimates has increased its share of global turnover in traditional transactions from 31.3% in April 2004 to 32.4% in April 2006. RPP
The ten most active traders account for almost 73% of trading volume, according to The Wall Street Journal Europe, (2/9/06 p. 20). These large international banks continually provide the market with both bid (buy) and ask (sell) prices. The bid/ask spread is the difference between the price at which a bank or market maker will sell ("ask", or "offer") and the price at which a market-maker will buy ("bid") from a wholesale customer. This spread is minimal for actively traded pairs of currencies, usually 0–3 pips. For example, the bid/ask quote of EUR/USD might be 1.2200/1.2203. Minimum trading size for most deals is usually $100,000.
These spreads might not apply to retail customers at banks, which will routinely mark up the difference to say 1.2100 / 1.2300 for transfers, or say 1.2000 / 1.2400 for banknotes or travelers' checks. Spot prices at market makers vary, but on EUR/USD are usually no more than 3 pips wide (i.e. 0.0003). Competition has greatly increased with pip spreads shrinking on the major pairs to as little as 1 to 2 pips.
Market participants
Unlike a stock market, where all participants have access to the same prices, the forex market is divided into levels of access. At the top is the inter-bank market, which is made up of the largest investment banking firms. Within the inter-bank market, spreads, which are the difference between the bid and ask prices, are razor sharp and usually unavailable, and not known to players outside the inner circle. As you descend the levels of access, the difference between the bid and ask prices widens (from 0-1 pip to 1-2 pips only for major currencies like the Euro). This is due to volume. If a trader can guarantee large numbers of transactions for large amounts, they can demand a smaller difference between the bid and ask price, which is referred to as a better spread. The levels of access that make up the forex market are determined by the size of the “line” (the amount of money with which they are trading). The top-tier inter-bank market accounts for 53% of all transactions. After that there are usually smaller investment banks, followed by large multi-national corporations (which need to hedge risk and pay employees in different countries), large hedge funds, and even some of the retail forex market makers. According to Galati and Melvin, “Pension funds, insurance companies, mutual funds, and other institutional investors have played an increasingly important role in financial markets in general, and in FX markets in particular, since the early 2000s.” (2004) In addition, he notes, “Hedge funds have grown markedly over the 2001–2004 period in terms of both number and overall size” Central banks also participate in the forex market to align currencies to their economic needs.
Banks
The interbank market caters for both the majority of commercial turnover and large amounts of speculative trading every day. A large bank may trade billions of dollars daily. Some of this trading is undertaken on behalf of customers, but much is conducted by proprietary desks, trading for the bank's own account.
Until recently, foreign exchange brokers did large amounts of business, facilitating interbank trading and matching anonymous counterparts for small fees. Today, however, much of this business has moved on to more efficient electronic systems. The broker squawk box lets traders listen in on ongoing interbank trading and is heard in most trading rooms, but turnover is noticeably smaller than just a few years ago.
Commercial companies
An important part of this market comes from the financial activities of companies seeking foreign exchange to pay for goods or services. Commercial companies often trade fairly small amounts compared to those of banks or speculators, and their trades often have little short term impact on market rates. Nevertheless, trade flows are an important factor in the long-term direction of a currency's exchange rate. Some multinational companies can have an unpredictable impact when very large positions are covered due to exposures that are not widely known by other market participants.
Central banks
National central banks play an important role in the foreign exchange markets. They try to control the money supply, inflation, and/or interest rates and often have official or unofficial target rates for their currencies. They can use their often substantial foreign exchange reserves to stabilize the market. Milton Friedman argued that the best stabilization strategy would be for central banks to buy when the exchange rate is too low, and to sell when the rate is too high — that is, to trade for a profit based on their more precise information. Nevertheless, the effectiveness of central bank "stabilizing speculation" is doubtful because central banks do not go bankrupt if they make large losses, like other traders would, and there is no convincing evidence that they do make a profit trading.
The mere expectation or rumor of central bank intervention might be enough to stabilize a currency, but aggressive intervention might be used several times each year in countries with a dirty float currency regime. Central banks do not always achieve their objectives. The combined resources of the market can easily overwhelm any central bank. Several scenarios of this nature were seen in the 1992–93 ERM collapse, and in more recent times in Southeast Asia.
Investment management firms
Investment management firms (who typically manage large accounts on behalf of customers such as pension funds and endowments) use the foreign exchange market to facilitate transactions in foreign securities. For example, an investment manager with an international equity portfolio will need to buy and sell foreign currencies in the spot market in order to pay for purchases of foreign equities. Since the forex transactions are secondary to the actual investment decision, they are not seen as speculative or aimed at profit-maximization.
Some investment management firms also have more speculative specialist currency overlay operations, which manage clients' currency exposures with the aim of generating profits as well as limiting risk. Whilst the number of this type of specialist firms is quite small, many have a large value of assets under management (AUM), and hence can generate large trades.
Hedge funds
Hedge funds, such as George Soros's Quantum fund have gained a reputation for aggressive currency speculation since 1990. They control billions of dollars of equity and may borrow billions more, and thus may overwhelm intervention by central banks to support almost any currency, if the economic fundamentals are in the hedge funds' favor.
Retail forex brokers
Retail forex brokers or market makers handle a minute fraction of the total volume of the foreign exchange market. According to CNN, one retail broker estimates retail volume at $25–50 billion daily, which is about 2% of the whole market and it has been reported by the CFTC website that inexperienced investors may become targets of forex scams.
Exchange Rates
Currency band
Exchange rate
Exchange rate regime
Fixed exchange rate
Floating exchange rate
Linked exchange rate
Markets
Foreign exchange market
Futures exchange
Products
Currency
Currency future
Non-deliverable forward
Forex swap
Currency swap
Foreign exchange option
The foreign exchange (currency or forex or FX) market exists wherever one currency is traded for another. It is by far the largest financial market in the world, and includes trading between large banks, central banks, currency speculators, multinational corporations, governments, and other financial markets and institutions. The average daily trade in the global forex and related markets currently is over US$ 3 trillion.[1] Retail traders (individuals) are a small fraction of this market and may only participate indirectly through brokers or banks, and are subject to forex scams[2] [3].
Market size and liquidity
The foreign exchange market is unique because of
its trading volumes,
the extreme liquidity of the market,
the large number of, and variety of, traders in the market,
its geographical dispersion,
its long trading hours: 24 hours a day (except on weekends),
the variety of factors that affect exchange rates.
the low margins of profit compared with other markets of fixed income (but profits can be high due to very large trading volumes)
According to the BIS,[1] average daily turnover in traditional foreign exchange markets is estimated at $3,210 billion. Daily averages in April for different years, in billions of US dollars, are presented on the chart below:
This $3.21 trillion in global foreign exchange market "traditional" turnover was broken down as follows:
$1,005 billion in spot transactions
$362 billion in outright forwards
$1,714 billion in forex swaps
$129 billion estimated gaps in reporting
In addition to "traditional" turnover, $2.1 trillion was traded in derivatives.
Exchange-traded forex futures contracts were introduced in 1972 at the Chicago Mercantile Exchange and are actively traded relative to most other futures contracts. Forex futures volume has grown rapidly in recent years, and accounts for about 7% of the total foreign exchange market volume, according to The Wall Street Journal Europe (5/5/06, p. 20).
Average daily global turnover in traditional foreign exchange market transactions totaled $2.7 trillion in April 2006 according to IFSL estimates based on semi-annual London, New York, Tokyo and Singapore Foreign Exchange Committee data. Overall turnover, including non-traditional foreign exchange derivatives and products traded on exchanges, averaged around $2.9 trillion a day. This was more than ten times the size of the combined daily turnover on all the world’s equity markets. Foreign exchange trading increased by 38% between April 2005 and April 2006 and has more than doubled since 2001. This is largely due to the growing importance of foreign exchange as an asset class and an increase in fund management assets, particularly of hedge funds and pension funds. The diverse selection of execution venues such as internet trading platforms has also made it easier for retail traders to trade in the foreign exchange market. [4]
Because foreign exchange is an OTC market where brokers/dealers negotiate directly with one another, there is no central exchange or clearing house. The biggest geographic trading centre is the UK, primarily London, which according to IFSL estimates has increased its share of global turnover in traditional transactions from 31.3% in April 2004 to 32.4% in April 2006. RPP
The ten most active traders account for almost 73% of trading volume, according to The Wall Street Journal Europe, (2/9/06 p. 20). These large international banks continually provide the market with both bid (buy) and ask (sell) prices. The bid/ask spread is the difference between the price at which a bank or market maker will sell ("ask", or "offer") and the price at which a market-maker will buy ("bid") from a wholesale customer. This spread is minimal for actively traded pairs of currencies, usually 0–3 pips. For example, the bid/ask quote of EUR/USD might be 1.2200/1.2203. Minimum trading size for most deals is usually $100,000.
These spreads might not apply to retail customers at banks, which will routinely mark up the difference to say 1.2100 / 1.2300 for transfers, or say 1.2000 / 1.2400 for banknotes or travelers' checks. Spot prices at market makers vary, but on EUR/USD are usually no more than 3 pips wide (i.e. 0.0003). Competition has greatly increased with pip spreads shrinking on the major pairs to as little as 1 to 2 pips.
Market participants
Unlike a stock market, where all participants have access to the same prices, the forex market is divided into levels of access. At the top is the inter-bank market, which is made up of the largest investment banking firms. Within the inter-bank market, spreads, which are the difference between the bid and ask prices, are razor sharp and usually unavailable, and not known to players outside the inner circle. As you descend the levels of access, the difference between the bid and ask prices widens (from 0-1 pip to 1-2 pips only for major currencies like the Euro). This is due to volume. If a trader can guarantee large numbers of transactions for large amounts, they can demand a smaller difference between the bid and ask price, which is referred to as a better spread. The levels of access that make up the forex market are determined by the size of the “line” (the amount of money with which they are trading). The top-tier inter-bank market accounts for 53% of all transactions. After that there are usually smaller investment banks, followed by large multi-national corporations (which need to hedge risk and pay employees in different countries), large hedge funds, and even some of the retail forex market makers. According to Galati and Melvin, “Pension funds, insurance companies, mutual funds, and other institutional investors have played an increasingly important role in financial markets in general, and in FX markets in particular, since the early 2000s.” (2004) In addition, he notes, “Hedge funds have grown markedly over the 2001–2004 period in terms of both number and overall size” Central banks also participate in the forex market to align currencies to their economic needs.
Banks
The interbank market caters for both the majority of commercial turnover and large amounts of speculative trading every day. A large bank may trade billions of dollars daily. Some of this trading is undertaken on behalf of customers, but much is conducted by proprietary desks, trading for the bank's own account.
Until recently, foreign exchange brokers did large amounts of business, facilitating interbank trading and matching anonymous counterparts for small fees. Today, however, much of this business has moved on to more efficient electronic systems. The broker squawk box lets traders listen in on ongoing interbank trading and is heard in most trading rooms, but turnover is noticeably smaller than just a few years ago.
Commercial companies
An important part of this market comes from the financial activities of companies seeking foreign exchange to pay for goods or services. Commercial companies often trade fairly small amounts compared to those of banks or speculators, and their trades often have little short term impact on market rates. Nevertheless, trade flows are an important factor in the long-term direction of a currency's exchange rate. Some multinational companies can have an unpredictable impact when very large positions are covered due to exposures that are not widely known by other market participants.
Central banks
National central banks play an important role in the foreign exchange markets. They try to control the money supply, inflation, and/or interest rates and often have official or unofficial target rates for their currencies. They can use their often substantial foreign exchange reserves to stabilize the market. Milton Friedman argued that the best stabilization strategy would be for central banks to buy when the exchange rate is too low, and to sell when the rate is too high — that is, to trade for a profit based on their more precise information. Nevertheless, the effectiveness of central bank "stabilizing speculation" is doubtful because central banks do not go bankrupt if they make large losses, like other traders would, and there is no convincing evidence that they do make a profit trading.
The mere expectation or rumor of central bank intervention might be enough to stabilize a currency, but aggressive intervention might be used several times each year in countries with a dirty float currency regime. Central banks do not always achieve their objectives. The combined resources of the market can easily overwhelm any central bank. Several scenarios of this nature were seen in the 1992–93 ERM collapse, and in more recent times in Southeast Asia.
Investment management firms
Investment management firms (who typically manage large accounts on behalf of customers such as pension funds and endowments) use the foreign exchange market to facilitate transactions in foreign securities. For example, an investment manager with an international equity portfolio will need to buy and sell foreign currencies in the spot market in order to pay for purchases of foreign equities. Since the forex transactions are secondary to the actual investment decision, they are not seen as speculative or aimed at profit-maximization.
Some investment management firms also have more speculative specialist currency overlay operations, which manage clients' currency exposures with the aim of generating profits as well as limiting risk. Whilst the number of this type of specialist firms is quite small, many have a large value of assets under management (AUM), and hence can generate large trades.
Hedge funds
Hedge funds, such as George Soros's Quantum fund have gained a reputation for aggressive currency speculation since 1990. They control billions of dollars of equity and may borrow billions more, and thus may overwhelm intervention by central banks to support almost any currency, if the economic fundamentals are in the hedge funds' favor.
Retail forex brokers
Retail forex brokers or market makers handle a minute fraction of the total volume of the foreign exchange market. According to CNN, one retail broker estimates retail volume at $25–50 billion daily, which is about 2% of the whole market and it has been reported by the CFTC website that inexperienced investors may become targets of forex scams.
About Finance
Finance studies and addresses the ways in which individuals, businesses, and organizations raise, allocate, and use monetary resources over time, taking into account the risks entailed in their projects. The term "finance" may thus incorporate any of the following:
The study of money and other assets;
The management and control of those assets;
Profiling and managing project risks;
The science of managing money;
As a verb, "to finance" is to provide funds for business or for an individual's large purchases (car, home, etc.).
The activity of finance is the application of a set of techniques that individuals and organizations (entities) use to manage their money, particularly the differences between income and expenditure and the risks of their investments.
An income that exceeds its expenditure can lend or invest the excess income. On the other hand, an entity whose income is less than its expenditure can raise capital by borrowing or selling equity claims, decreasing its expenses, or increasing its income. The lender can find a borrower, a financial intermediary, such as a bank or buy notes or bonds in the bond market. The lender receives interest, the borrower pays a higher interest than the lender receives, and the financial intermediary pockets the difference.
A bank aggregates the activities of many borrowers and lenders. A bank accepts deposits from lenders, on which it pays the interest. The bank then lends these deposits to borrowers. Banks allow borrowers and lenders, of different sizes, to coordinate their activity. Banks are thus compensators of money flows in space.
A specific example of corporate finance is the sale of stock by a company to institutional investors like investment banks, who in turn generally sell it to the public. The stock gives whoever owns it part ownership in that company. If you buy one share of XYZ Inc, and they have 100 shares outstanding (held by investors), you are 1/100 owner of that company. Of course, in return for the stock, the company receives cash, which it uses to expand its business in a process called "equity financing". Equity financing mixed with the sale of bonds (or any other debt financing) is called the company's capital structure.
Finance is used by individuals (personal finance), by governments (public finance), by businesses (corporate finance), as well as by a wide variety of organizations including schools and non-profit organizations. In general, the goals of each of the above activities are achieved through the use of appropriate financial instruments, with consideration to their institutional setting.
Finance is one of the most important aspects of business management. Without proper financial planning a new enterprise is unlikely to be successful. Managing money (a liquid asset) is essential to ensure a secure future, both for the individual and an organization.
Personal finance
Questions in personal finance revolve around
How much money will be needed by an individual (or by a family) at various points in the future?
Where will this money come from (e.g. savings or borrowing)?
How can people protect themselves against unforeseen events in their lives, and risk in financial markets?
How can family assets be best transferred across generations (bequests and inheritance)?
How do taxes (tax subsidies or penalties) affect personal financial decisions?
Personal financial decisions may involve paying for education, financing durable goods such as real estate and cars, buying insurance, e.g. health and property insurance, investing and saving for retirement.
Personal financial decisions may also involve paying for a loan.
Corporate finance
Managerial or corporate finance is the task of providing the funds for a corporation's activities. For small business, this is referred to as SME finance. It generally involves balancing risk and profitability, while attempting to maximize an entity's wealth and the value of its stock.
Long term funds are provided by ownership equity and long-term credit, often in the form of bonds. The balance between these forms the company's capital structure. Short-term funding or working capital is mostly provided by banks extending a line of credit.
On the bond market, borrowers package their debt in the form of bonds. The borrower receives the money that it borrows by selling the bond, which includes a promise to repay the value of the bond with interest. The purchaser of a bond can resell it so that the actual recipient of the interest payments can change over time. Bonds allow lenders to recoup the value of their loan by simply selling the bond.
Another business decision concerning finance is investment, or fund management. An investment is an acquisition of an asset in the hope that it will maintain or increase its value. In investment management -- in choosing a portfolio -- one has to decide what, how much and when to invest. To do this, a company must:
Identify relevant objectives and constraints: institution or individual goals, time horizon, risk aversion and tax considerations;
Identify the appropriate strategy: active v. passive -- hedging strategy
Measure the portfolio performance
Financial management is duplicate with the financial function of the Accounting profession. However, financial accounting is more concerned with the reporting of historical financial information, while the financial decision is directed toward the future of the firm.
Capital
Capital is the money which gives the business the power to buy goods to be used in the production of other goods or the offering of a service.
Sources of capital
Capital market
Long-term funds are bought and sold:
Shares
Debentures
Long-term loans, often with a mortgage bond as security
Reserve funds
Euro Bonds
Money market
Financial institutions can use short-term savings to lend out in the form of short-term loans:
Credit on open account
Bank overdraft
Short-term loans
Bills of exchange
Factoring of debtors
[edit] Borrowed capital
This is capital which the business borrows from institutions or people, and includes debentures:
Redeemable debentures
Irredeemable debentures
Debentures to bearer
Hardcore debentures
[edit] Own capital
This is capital that owners of a business (shareholders and partners, for example) provide:
Preference shares:
Ordinary preference shares
Cumulative preference shares
Participating preference shares
Ordinary shares
Bonus shares
Founders' shares
Differences between shares and debentures
Shareholders are effectively owners; debenture-holders are creditors.
Shareholders may vote at AGMs and be elected as directors; debenture-holders may not vote at AGMs or be elected as directors.
Shareholders receive profit in the form of dividends; debenture-holders receive a fixed rate of interest.
If there is no profit, the shareholder does not receive a dividend; interest is paid to debenture-holders regardless of whether or not a profit has been made.
Fixed capital
This is money which is used to purchase assets that will remain permanently in the business and help it to make a profit.
Factors determining fixed capital requirements
Nature of business
Size of business
Stage of development
Capital invested by the owners
Working capital
This is money which is used to buy stock, pay expenses and finance credit.
Factors determining working capital requirements
Size of business
Stage of development
Time of production
Rate of stock turnover
Buying and selling terms
Seasonal consumption
Seasonal production
The desirability of budgeting
Capital budget
This concerns fixed asset requirements for the next five years and how these will be financed.
Cash budget
Working capital requirements of a business should be monitored at all times to ensure that there are sufficient funds available to meet short-term expenses.
Management of current assets
Credit policy
Credit gives the customer the opportunity to buy goods and services, and pay for them at a later date.
Advantages of credit trade
Usually results in more customers than cash trade
Can charge more for goods to cover the risk of bad debt
Gain goodwill and loyalty of customers
People can buy goods and pay for them at a later date.
Farmers can buy seeds and implements, and pay for them only after the harvest.
Stimulates agricultural and industrial production and commerce.
Disadvantages of credit trade
Risk of bad debt
High administration expenses
People can buy more than they can afford.
More working capital needed
Forms of credit
Suppliers credit:
Credit on ordinary open account
Instalment sales
Bills of exchange
Credit cards
Contractor's credit
Factoring of debtors
Factors which influence credit conditions
Nature of the business's activities
Financial position
Product durability
Length of production process
Competition and competitors' credit conditions
Country's economic position
Conditions at financial institutions
Discount for early payment
Debtor's type of business and financial position
Credit collection
Overdue accounts
Cards arranged alphabetically in card index system
Attach a notice of overdue account to statement.
Send a letter asking for settlement of debt.
Send a second or third letter if first is ineffectual.
Threaten legal action.
Effective credit control
Increases sales
Reduces bad debts
Increases profits
Builds customer loyalty
Sources of information on creditworthiness
Business references
Bank references
Credit agencies
Chambers of commerce
Employers
Credit application forms
Duties of the credit department
Legal action
Taking necessary steps to ensure settlement of account
Knowing the credit policy and procedures for credit control
Setting credit limits
Ensuring that statements of account are sent out
Ensuring that thorough checks are carried out on credit customers
Keeping records of all amounts owing
Ensuring that debts are settled promptly
Stock
Purpose of stock control
Ensures that enough stock is on hand to satisfy demand.
Protects and monitors theft.
Safeguards against having to stockpile.
Allows for control over selling and cost price.
Stockpiling
This refers to the purchase of stock at the right time, at the right price and in the right quantities.
Advantages
Losses due to price fluctuations and stock loss kept to a minimum
Ensures that goods reach customers timeously; better service
Saves space and storage cost
Investment of working capital kept to minimum
No loss in production due to delays
Disadvantages
Obsolescence
Danger of fire and theft
Initial working capital investment is very large
Losses due to price fluctuation
Influence of stock management on rate of return
Right price
Right quantity
Right quality
Right place
Right time
Right property
Rate of stock turnover
This refers to the number of times per year that the average level of stock is sold. It may be worked out by dividing the cost price of goods sold by the cost price of the average stock level.
Determining optimum stock levels
Maximum stock level refers to the maximum stock level that may be maintained to ensure cost effectiveness.
Minimum stock level refers to the point below which the stock level may not go.
Standard order refers to the amount of stock generally ordered.
Order level refers to the stock level which calls for an order to be made.
Cash
Reasons for keeping cash
The transaction motive refers to the money kept available to pay expenses.
The precautionary motive refers to the money kept aside for unforeseen expenses.
The speculative motive refers the money kept aside to take advantage of suddenly arising opportunities.
Advantages of sufficient cash
Current liabilities may be catered for.
Cash discounts are given for cash payments.
Production is kept moving.
Surplus cash may be invested on a short-term basis.
The business is able to pay its accounts timeously, allowing for easily-obtained credit.
Management of fixed assets
Depreciation
Depreciation is the decrease in the value of an asset due to wear and tear or obsolescence. It is calculated yearly to ensure realistic book values for assets.
Insurance
Insurance is the undertaking of one party to indemnify another, in exchange for a premium, against a certain eventuality.
Uninsurable risks
Bad debt
Changes in fashion
Time lapses between ordering and delivery
New machinery or technology
Different prices at different places
Requirements of an insurance contract
Insurable interest
The insured must derive a real financial gain from that which he is insuring, or stand to lose if it is destroyed or lost.
The item must belong to the insured.
One person may take out insurance on the life of another if the second party owes the first money.
Must be some person or item which can, legally, be insured.
The insured must have a legal claim to that which he is insuring.
Good faith
Uberrimae fidei refers to absolute honesty and must characterise the dealings of both the insurer and the insured.
Shared Services
There is currently a move towards converging and consolidating Finance provisions into shared services within an organization. Rather than an organization having a number of separate Finance departments performing the same tasks from different locations a more centralized version can be created.
Finance of states
Main article: Public finance
Country, state, county, city or municipality finance is called public finance. It is concerned with
Identification of required expenditure of a public sector entity
Source(s) of that entity's revenue
The budgeting process
Debt issuance (municipal bonds) for public works projects
Financial economics
Main article: Financial economics
Financial economics is the branch of economics studying the interrelation of financial variables, such as prices, interest rates and shares, as opposed to those concerning the real economy. Financial economics concentrates on influences of real economic variables on financial ones, in contrast to pure finance.
It studies:
Valuation - Determination of the fair value of an asset
How risky is the asset? (identification of the asset appropriate discount rate)
What cash flows will it produce? (discounting of relevant cash flows)
How does the market price compare to similar assets? (relative valuation)
Are the cash flows dependent on some other asset or event? (derivatives, contingent claim valuation)
Financial markets and instruments
Commodities - topics
Stocks - topics
Bonds - topics
Money market instruments- topics
Derivatives - topics
Financial institutions and regulation
Borrowed capital
This is capital which the business borrows from institutions or people, and includes debentures:
Redeemable debentures
Irredeemable debentures
Debentures to bearer
Hardcore debentures
Own capital
This is capital that owners of a business (shareholders and partners, for example) provide:
Preference shares:
Ordinary preference shares
Cumulative preference shares
Participating preference shares
Ordinary shares
Bonus shares
Founders' shares
Differences between shares and debentures
Shareholders are effectively owners; debenture-holders are creditors.
Shareholders may vote at AGMs and be elected as directors; debenture-holders may not vote at AGMs or be elected as directors.
Shareholders receive profit in the form of dividends; debenture-holders receive a fixed rate of interest.
If there is no profit, the shareholder does not receive a dividend; interest is paid to debenture-holders regardless of whether or not a profit has been made.
Fixed capital
This is money which is used to purchase assets that will remain permanently in the business and help it to make a profit.
Factors determining fixed capital requirements
Nature of business
Size of business
Stage of development
Capital invested by the owners
Working capital
This is money which is used to buy stock, pay expenses and finance credit.
Factors determining working capital requirements
Size of business
Stage of development
Time of production
Rate of stock turnover
Buying and selling terms
Seasonal consumption
Seasonal production
The desirability of budgeting
[edit] Capital budget
This concerns fixed asset requirements for the next five years and how these will be financed.
Cash budget
Working capital requirements of a business should be monitored at all times to ensure that there are sufficient funds available to meet short-term expenses.
Management of current assets
Credit policy
Credit gives the customer the opportunity to buy goods and services, and pay for them at a later date.
Advantages of credit trade
Usually results in more customers than cash trade
Can charge more for goods to cover the risk of bad debt
Gain goodwill and loyalty of customers
People can buy goods and pay for them at a later date.
Farmers can buy seeds and implements, and pay for them only after the harvest.
Stimulates agricultural and industrial production and commerce.
Disadvantages of credit trade
Risk of bad debt
High administration expenses
People can buy more than they can afford.
More working capital needed
Forms of credit
Suppliers credit:
Credit on ordinary open account
Instalment sales
Bills of exchange
Credit cards
Contractor's credit
Factoring of debtors
Factors which influence credit conditions
Nature of the business's activities
Financial position
Product durability
Length of production process
Competition and competitors' credit conditions
Country's economic position
Conditions at financial institutions
Discount for early payment
Debtor's type of business and financial position
Credit collection
Overdue accounts
Cards arranged alphabetically in card index system
Attach a notice of overdue account to statement.
Send a letter asking for settlement of debt.
Send a second or third letter if first is ineffectual.
Threaten legal action.
Effective credit control
Increases sales
Reduces bad debts
Increases profits
Builds customer loyalty
Sources of information on creditworthiness
Business references
Bank references
Credit agencies
Chambers of commerce
Employers
Credit application forms
Duties of the credit department
Legal action
Taking necessary steps to ensure settlement of account
Knowing the credit policy and procedures for credit control
Setting credit limits
Ensuring that statements of account are sent out
Ensuring that thorough checks are carried out on credit customers
Keeping records of all amounts owing
Ensuring that debts are settled promptly
Stock
Purpose of stock control
Ensures that enough stock is on hand to satisfy demand.
Protects and monitors theft.
Safeguards against having to stockpile.
Allows for control over selling and cost price.
Stockpiling
This refers to the purchase of stock at the right time, at the right price and in the right quantities.
dvantages
Losses due to price fluctuations and stock loss kept to a minimum
Ensures that goods reach customers timeously; better service
Saves space and storage cost
Investment of working capital kept to minimum
No loss in production due to delays
Disadvantages
Obsolescence
Danger of fire and theft
Initial working capital investment is very large
Losses due to price fluctuation
Influence of stock management on rate of return
Right price
Right quantity
Right quality
Right place
Right time
Right property
Rate of stock turnover
This refers to the number of times per year that the average level of stock is sold. It may be worked out by dividing the cost price of goods sold by the cost price of the average stock level.
Determining optimum stock levels
Maximum stock level refers to the maximum stock level that may be maintained to ensure cost effectiveness.
Minimum stock level refers to the point below which the stock level may not go.
Standard order refers to the amount of stock generally ordered.
Order level refers to the stock level which calls for an order to be made.
The study of money and other assets;
The management and control of those assets;
Profiling and managing project risks;
The science of managing money;
As a verb, "to finance" is to provide funds for business or for an individual's large purchases (car, home, etc.).
The activity of finance is the application of a set of techniques that individuals and organizations (entities) use to manage their money, particularly the differences between income and expenditure and the risks of their investments.
An income that exceeds its expenditure can lend or invest the excess income. On the other hand, an entity whose income is less than its expenditure can raise capital by borrowing or selling equity claims, decreasing its expenses, or increasing its income. The lender can find a borrower, a financial intermediary, such as a bank or buy notes or bonds in the bond market. The lender receives interest, the borrower pays a higher interest than the lender receives, and the financial intermediary pockets the difference.
A bank aggregates the activities of many borrowers and lenders. A bank accepts deposits from lenders, on which it pays the interest. The bank then lends these deposits to borrowers. Banks allow borrowers and lenders, of different sizes, to coordinate their activity. Banks are thus compensators of money flows in space.
A specific example of corporate finance is the sale of stock by a company to institutional investors like investment banks, who in turn generally sell it to the public. The stock gives whoever owns it part ownership in that company. If you buy one share of XYZ Inc, and they have 100 shares outstanding (held by investors), you are 1/100 owner of that company. Of course, in return for the stock, the company receives cash, which it uses to expand its business in a process called "equity financing". Equity financing mixed with the sale of bonds (or any other debt financing) is called the company's capital structure.
Finance is used by individuals (personal finance), by governments (public finance), by businesses (corporate finance), as well as by a wide variety of organizations including schools and non-profit organizations. In general, the goals of each of the above activities are achieved through the use of appropriate financial instruments, with consideration to their institutional setting.
Finance is one of the most important aspects of business management. Without proper financial planning a new enterprise is unlikely to be successful. Managing money (a liquid asset) is essential to ensure a secure future, both for the individual and an organization.
Personal finance
Questions in personal finance revolve around
How much money will be needed by an individual (or by a family) at various points in the future?
Where will this money come from (e.g. savings or borrowing)?
How can people protect themselves against unforeseen events in their lives, and risk in financial markets?
How can family assets be best transferred across generations (bequests and inheritance)?
How do taxes (tax subsidies or penalties) affect personal financial decisions?
Personal financial decisions may involve paying for education, financing durable goods such as real estate and cars, buying insurance, e.g. health and property insurance, investing and saving for retirement.
Personal financial decisions may also involve paying for a loan.
Corporate finance
Managerial or corporate finance is the task of providing the funds for a corporation's activities. For small business, this is referred to as SME finance. It generally involves balancing risk and profitability, while attempting to maximize an entity's wealth and the value of its stock.
Long term funds are provided by ownership equity and long-term credit, often in the form of bonds. The balance between these forms the company's capital structure. Short-term funding or working capital is mostly provided by banks extending a line of credit.
On the bond market, borrowers package their debt in the form of bonds. The borrower receives the money that it borrows by selling the bond, which includes a promise to repay the value of the bond with interest. The purchaser of a bond can resell it so that the actual recipient of the interest payments can change over time. Bonds allow lenders to recoup the value of their loan by simply selling the bond.
Another business decision concerning finance is investment, or fund management. An investment is an acquisition of an asset in the hope that it will maintain or increase its value. In investment management -- in choosing a portfolio -- one has to decide what, how much and when to invest. To do this, a company must:
Identify relevant objectives and constraints: institution or individual goals, time horizon, risk aversion and tax considerations;
Identify the appropriate strategy: active v. passive -- hedging strategy
Measure the portfolio performance
Financial management is duplicate with the financial function of the Accounting profession. However, financial accounting is more concerned with the reporting of historical financial information, while the financial decision is directed toward the future of the firm.
Capital
Capital is the money which gives the business the power to buy goods to be used in the production of other goods or the offering of a service.
Sources of capital
Capital market
Long-term funds are bought and sold:
Shares
Debentures
Long-term loans, often with a mortgage bond as security
Reserve funds
Euro Bonds
Money market
Financial institutions can use short-term savings to lend out in the form of short-term loans:
Credit on open account
Bank overdraft
Short-term loans
Bills of exchange
Factoring of debtors
[edit] Borrowed capital
This is capital which the business borrows from institutions or people, and includes debentures:
Redeemable debentures
Irredeemable debentures
Debentures to bearer
Hardcore debentures
[edit] Own capital
This is capital that owners of a business (shareholders and partners, for example) provide:
Preference shares:
Ordinary preference shares
Cumulative preference shares
Participating preference shares
Ordinary shares
Bonus shares
Founders' shares
Differences between shares and debentures
Shareholders are effectively owners; debenture-holders are creditors.
Shareholders may vote at AGMs and be elected as directors; debenture-holders may not vote at AGMs or be elected as directors.
Shareholders receive profit in the form of dividends; debenture-holders receive a fixed rate of interest.
If there is no profit, the shareholder does not receive a dividend; interest is paid to debenture-holders regardless of whether or not a profit has been made.
Fixed capital
This is money which is used to purchase assets that will remain permanently in the business and help it to make a profit.
Factors determining fixed capital requirements
Nature of business
Size of business
Stage of development
Capital invested by the owners
Working capital
This is money which is used to buy stock, pay expenses and finance credit.
Factors determining working capital requirements
Size of business
Stage of development
Time of production
Rate of stock turnover
Buying and selling terms
Seasonal consumption
Seasonal production
The desirability of budgeting
Capital budget
This concerns fixed asset requirements for the next five years and how these will be financed.
Cash budget
Working capital requirements of a business should be monitored at all times to ensure that there are sufficient funds available to meet short-term expenses.
Management of current assets
Credit policy
Credit gives the customer the opportunity to buy goods and services, and pay for them at a later date.
Advantages of credit trade
Usually results in more customers than cash trade
Can charge more for goods to cover the risk of bad debt
Gain goodwill and loyalty of customers
People can buy goods and pay for them at a later date.
Farmers can buy seeds and implements, and pay for them only after the harvest.
Stimulates agricultural and industrial production and commerce.
Disadvantages of credit trade
Risk of bad debt
High administration expenses
People can buy more than they can afford.
More working capital needed
Forms of credit
Suppliers credit:
Credit on ordinary open account
Instalment sales
Bills of exchange
Credit cards
Contractor's credit
Factoring of debtors
Factors which influence credit conditions
Nature of the business's activities
Financial position
Product durability
Length of production process
Competition and competitors' credit conditions
Country's economic position
Conditions at financial institutions
Discount for early payment
Debtor's type of business and financial position
Credit collection
Overdue accounts
Cards arranged alphabetically in card index system
Attach a notice of overdue account to statement.
Send a letter asking for settlement of debt.
Send a second or third letter if first is ineffectual.
Threaten legal action.
Effective credit control
Increases sales
Reduces bad debts
Increases profits
Builds customer loyalty
Sources of information on creditworthiness
Business references
Bank references
Credit agencies
Chambers of commerce
Employers
Credit application forms
Duties of the credit department
Legal action
Taking necessary steps to ensure settlement of account
Knowing the credit policy and procedures for credit control
Setting credit limits
Ensuring that statements of account are sent out
Ensuring that thorough checks are carried out on credit customers
Keeping records of all amounts owing
Ensuring that debts are settled promptly
Stock
Purpose of stock control
Ensures that enough stock is on hand to satisfy demand.
Protects and monitors theft.
Safeguards against having to stockpile.
Allows for control over selling and cost price.
Stockpiling
This refers to the purchase of stock at the right time, at the right price and in the right quantities.
Advantages
Losses due to price fluctuations and stock loss kept to a minimum
Ensures that goods reach customers timeously; better service
Saves space and storage cost
Investment of working capital kept to minimum
No loss in production due to delays
Disadvantages
Obsolescence
Danger of fire and theft
Initial working capital investment is very large
Losses due to price fluctuation
Influence of stock management on rate of return
Right price
Right quantity
Right quality
Right place
Right time
Right property
Rate of stock turnover
This refers to the number of times per year that the average level of stock is sold. It may be worked out by dividing the cost price of goods sold by the cost price of the average stock level.
Determining optimum stock levels
Maximum stock level refers to the maximum stock level that may be maintained to ensure cost effectiveness.
Minimum stock level refers to the point below which the stock level may not go.
Standard order refers to the amount of stock generally ordered.
Order level refers to the stock level which calls for an order to be made.
Cash
Reasons for keeping cash
The transaction motive refers to the money kept available to pay expenses.
The precautionary motive refers to the money kept aside for unforeseen expenses.
The speculative motive refers the money kept aside to take advantage of suddenly arising opportunities.
Advantages of sufficient cash
Current liabilities may be catered for.
Cash discounts are given for cash payments.
Production is kept moving.
Surplus cash may be invested on a short-term basis.
The business is able to pay its accounts timeously, allowing for easily-obtained credit.
Management of fixed assets
Depreciation
Depreciation is the decrease in the value of an asset due to wear and tear or obsolescence. It is calculated yearly to ensure realistic book values for assets.
Insurance
Insurance is the undertaking of one party to indemnify another, in exchange for a premium, against a certain eventuality.
Uninsurable risks
Bad debt
Changes in fashion
Time lapses between ordering and delivery
New machinery or technology
Different prices at different places
Requirements of an insurance contract
Insurable interest
The insured must derive a real financial gain from that which he is insuring, or stand to lose if it is destroyed or lost.
The item must belong to the insured.
One person may take out insurance on the life of another if the second party owes the first money.
Must be some person or item which can, legally, be insured.
The insured must have a legal claim to that which he is insuring.
Good faith
Uberrimae fidei refers to absolute honesty and must characterise the dealings of both the insurer and the insured.
Shared Services
There is currently a move towards converging and consolidating Finance provisions into shared services within an organization. Rather than an organization having a number of separate Finance departments performing the same tasks from different locations a more centralized version can be created.
Finance of states
Main article: Public finance
Country, state, county, city or municipality finance is called public finance. It is concerned with
Identification of required expenditure of a public sector entity
Source(s) of that entity's revenue
The budgeting process
Debt issuance (municipal bonds) for public works projects
Financial economics
Main article: Financial economics
Financial economics is the branch of economics studying the interrelation of financial variables, such as prices, interest rates and shares, as opposed to those concerning the real economy. Financial economics concentrates on influences of real economic variables on financial ones, in contrast to pure finance.
It studies:
Valuation - Determination of the fair value of an asset
How risky is the asset? (identification of the asset appropriate discount rate)
What cash flows will it produce? (discounting of relevant cash flows)
How does the market price compare to similar assets? (relative valuation)
Are the cash flows dependent on some other asset or event? (derivatives, contingent claim valuation)
Financial markets and instruments
Commodities - topics
Stocks - topics
Bonds - topics
Money market instruments- topics
Derivatives - topics
Financial institutions and regulation
Borrowed capital
This is capital which the business borrows from institutions or people, and includes debentures:
Redeemable debentures
Irredeemable debentures
Debentures to bearer
Hardcore debentures
Own capital
This is capital that owners of a business (shareholders and partners, for example) provide:
Preference shares:
Ordinary preference shares
Cumulative preference shares
Participating preference shares
Ordinary shares
Bonus shares
Founders' shares
Differences between shares and debentures
Shareholders are effectively owners; debenture-holders are creditors.
Shareholders may vote at AGMs and be elected as directors; debenture-holders may not vote at AGMs or be elected as directors.
Shareholders receive profit in the form of dividends; debenture-holders receive a fixed rate of interest.
If there is no profit, the shareholder does not receive a dividend; interest is paid to debenture-holders regardless of whether or not a profit has been made.
Fixed capital
This is money which is used to purchase assets that will remain permanently in the business and help it to make a profit.
Factors determining fixed capital requirements
Nature of business
Size of business
Stage of development
Capital invested by the owners
Working capital
This is money which is used to buy stock, pay expenses and finance credit.
Factors determining working capital requirements
Size of business
Stage of development
Time of production
Rate of stock turnover
Buying and selling terms
Seasonal consumption
Seasonal production
The desirability of budgeting
[edit] Capital budget
This concerns fixed asset requirements for the next five years and how these will be financed.
Cash budget
Working capital requirements of a business should be monitored at all times to ensure that there are sufficient funds available to meet short-term expenses.
Management of current assets
Credit policy
Credit gives the customer the opportunity to buy goods and services, and pay for them at a later date.
Advantages of credit trade
Usually results in more customers than cash trade
Can charge more for goods to cover the risk of bad debt
Gain goodwill and loyalty of customers
People can buy goods and pay for them at a later date.
Farmers can buy seeds and implements, and pay for them only after the harvest.
Stimulates agricultural and industrial production and commerce.
Disadvantages of credit trade
Risk of bad debt
High administration expenses
People can buy more than they can afford.
More working capital needed
Forms of credit
Suppliers credit:
Credit on ordinary open account
Instalment sales
Bills of exchange
Credit cards
Contractor's credit
Factoring of debtors
Factors which influence credit conditions
Nature of the business's activities
Financial position
Product durability
Length of production process
Competition and competitors' credit conditions
Country's economic position
Conditions at financial institutions
Discount for early payment
Debtor's type of business and financial position
Credit collection
Overdue accounts
Cards arranged alphabetically in card index system
Attach a notice of overdue account to statement.
Send a letter asking for settlement of debt.
Send a second or third letter if first is ineffectual.
Threaten legal action.
Effective credit control
Increases sales
Reduces bad debts
Increases profits
Builds customer loyalty
Sources of information on creditworthiness
Business references
Bank references
Credit agencies
Chambers of commerce
Employers
Credit application forms
Duties of the credit department
Legal action
Taking necessary steps to ensure settlement of account
Knowing the credit policy and procedures for credit control
Setting credit limits
Ensuring that statements of account are sent out
Ensuring that thorough checks are carried out on credit customers
Keeping records of all amounts owing
Ensuring that debts are settled promptly
Stock
Purpose of stock control
Ensures that enough stock is on hand to satisfy demand.
Protects and monitors theft.
Safeguards against having to stockpile.
Allows for control over selling and cost price.
Stockpiling
This refers to the purchase of stock at the right time, at the right price and in the right quantities.
dvantages
Losses due to price fluctuations and stock loss kept to a minimum
Ensures that goods reach customers timeously; better service
Saves space and storage cost
Investment of working capital kept to minimum
No loss in production due to delays
Disadvantages
Obsolescence
Danger of fire and theft
Initial working capital investment is very large
Losses due to price fluctuation
Influence of stock management on rate of return
Right price
Right quantity
Right quality
Right place
Right time
Right property
Rate of stock turnover
This refers to the number of times per year that the average level of stock is sold. It may be worked out by dividing the cost price of goods sold by the cost price of the average stock level.
Determining optimum stock levels
Maximum stock level refers to the maximum stock level that may be maintained to ensure cost effectiveness.
Minimum stock level refers to the point below which the stock level may not go.
Standard order refers to the amount of stock generally ordered.
Order level refers to the stock level which calls for an order to be made.
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)